Sociolinguistics Essay Example

Sociolinguistics Essay The book discuses topics on sociolinguistics such as differences in language, language diversity, code-switching, prototype, speech, anthropological linguistics, linguistic and social disparity, gender difference and educational inferences of sociolinguistics. This second edition added up new segment on civility and courtesy, accommodation and samples. He also opened out the discussion about sex differences, association between language and thought and speech. As discussed in his first edition, language variety, speech as a social interaction and its quantitative study keep on.This is a very intriguing book. Hudson makes several statements but conflict with what he wants to articulate. For example, on page 11, he says â€Å"no two speakers have the same language, because no two speakers have the same experience of language† (Hudson, 1996)and â€Å"Effectively, the ‘socio-‘of ‘sociolinguistics is redundant.† This is somewhat in clash with his convention al conception about language, assortment, dialect and speech communities in his second chapter. He disputes the subsistence of them and can’t be used as a theoretical constructs.In some topics, the association of the topics is not intact but rather same topics can be found anywhere within the book. The author seems to â€Å"beat around the bush† where ideas are circling back on itself. The author argue the work of both Labov and Chomsky without clear explanations about what he is trying to say and what he want reader to understand. His arguments about variance of his idea against Labov and Chomsky are incomprehensible arguments. Specifically, his explanations about the section on quantitative study of speech are very poor. In addition, the graphs being used are poorly labeled or unlabeled. In explaining the authors ideas, there’s no precision and exactness. In page 16, For instance, he says â€Å"As for morphology, this is left out altogether, which again makes for ease of learning†¦.† (Hudson, 1996) .A reader can’t grasp how morphology has been left out altogether. There are so many explanations in the book without clear thoughts and sometimes careless.The significant role of the book can be taken seriously in the first two chapters of the seven chapters. For example, he makes significant arguments about varieties of language. He says, in pages 23-24,   that language should be taken into account as â€Å"a phenomenon including all languages of the world and then stresses that there is variety among languages is difficult to hunt down (Hudson, 1996). However, he concludes that varieties are not present. Rather, aspects of language may vary. People have different ways on how they use their language. People have different items on how they utter their language. Every people have a â€Å"part of the set† in the items they have in their language.In chapters three through six, he makes a significant notion of severa l concepts of sociolinguistics. According to Hudson, sociolinguistics deals with the study of language in relation with the society. I find very interesting in chapter three – Language, culture and thought. Specifically, his arguments about prototypes and sexism in the language system are very good which I found to be attractive. It can give details about indistinct boundaries of concepts where critical feature cannot. Language maintenance and alterations are very difficult to analyze. However, due to Hudson’s prototype theory which asserts that it is the groundwork for Fishman’s speech domain concept, the evaluation and investigation of language preservation and modification becomes is being facilitated.Chapter Four, â€Å"Speech as Social Interaction,† is difficult to analyze the ideas presented. Topics under the subject lack thorough discussion on the recent studies on speech acts, speech events and dialogue analysis.I was attracted oh how the author c ould encourage the accuracy of his work by using some statistical methods such as sampling, structured interview and by using variables. Researches conducted by the author add to the reliability of the authors ideas. The concept about sampling is not discussed thoroughly in the book even it does not appear. However, sampling can be implicitly understood in the book. Chapter 5, a quantitative study of speech, where discusses selection of â€Å"different types of housing and a range of social status†¦.† (Hudson, 2007, p.60) can be used to implicitly understand sampling, a selection process of different units from a population, called the sample, to make an inference from the whole population. In other words, it is a process of determining characteristics or parameters of the whole population by selecting a suitable representative part of it (Mugo, 2004).In addition, I found interested on how the author used structured interview for he could make conclusions from a certain research. From the book, I know that this kind of interview, where an evaluator asks same questions to every interviewee offering them the identical responses, is very efficient in data gathering (ERIC/AE Staff, 2007). He emphasizes that structured interview â€Å"have used fewer than a hundred speakers and increasing the number of speakers tends to be counterproductive the analytical (Hudson, 2007, p. 160).The use of the quantitative variable by the author helps to capture the thought about quantitative difference. Linguistic variable refers to â€Å"a set of related dialect forms all of which mean the same thing and which correlate with some social grouping in the speech community† (Britain, 2005).Although the book is used a course text, it must have suggested reading, projects or suggestions for additional information for readers to know. Also, the bibliography and index is poor in construction.The book, first, is a very good example resource for people who want to have background about sociolinguistics, the language with a society and the society with a language. However, I would like to stress some main points. Since the focus of the is mainly on theoretical aspects, it is not best recommended for those who want to take practical research. This could be a great resource about sociolinguistics if it will provide readers the clear and thorough understanding about the subject matter. Another, I like on how the author organized his ideas by making conclusions after a certain topic. The conclusion allows me to check the accuracy of his idea. Also, it gave me the importance of each topic discussed.

D171 Essays

D171 Essays D171 Essay D171 Essay Compare and contrast how the psychodynamic and cognitive behavioural approaches to counselling understand the person, and how these two approaches explain psychological distress experienced by individuals’. In Part 2, reflect and write about which of the two models appeal most to you and why. In this assignment I will first cover separately the concepts and ideas of psychodynamic and cognitive- behavioural approaches to counselling. I will look at how these two approaches understand the person and how they explain each person’s problem or problems. I will then compare and contrast them to highlight similarities between both of them and explain which appeals to me. Psychodynamic counselling has it’s origins in the ideas of a man called Sigmund Freud. Although his ideas were believed to be a key influence in modern psychology current theory and practice have gone way beyond Freud’s original ideas. Freud believed that repressed sexual wishes and memories lay in the heart of patients problems. However this has now developed by later practitioners and theorists to centre more on social and relationship orientated approach. Psychodynamic counselling is based on past experiences of the client. It will start from the client’s childhood and discuss relationships the individual had from a very young age. The person is not usually conscious of the true nature of this experience. The aim of the counsellor in to remain a blank canvas and through this the client will hold similar feelings to them as they did to authority figures of their past. This is called transference. As the counselling goes on the counsellor is to interpret the unconscious feelings of the client as this will give the client insight into why they are experiencing problems. Cognitive-behavioural counselling has its origins in behavioural psychology believed to have been created by a psychology professor called J. B Watson in the 19th Century. The concept being that the counsellor is to challenge the distorted idea’s of the client and replaces them with realistic ideas.

Tech Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Tech Article - Essay Example This technology is really unique because the software can recognize only the user’s voice, even if there are some background noises. Although some mobile phones have such functions such as voice commands, being able to dictate notes is a novel idea that provides a lot of convenience. People can take down notes even while driving, which usually happens. The technology is already being used by medical encoders because it makes the work much efficient and prevents repetitive stress injury on their hand/wrist. This technology has potential applications in various settings. In schools, ESL learners can become aware of their pronunciation by using this technology. They can dictate their notes and see if the computer can properly recognize the word. In BPO services, writers can use this technology, which can prevent them from developing musculoskeletal disorders in their wrist or forearm. Scientists or researchers can use this to dictate observations and have them printed immediately . Indeed, speech to text applications would definitely be used in many ways by different industries, whether for scientific, operations, or entertainment in the coming years. References Misel, Eli. "Android Apps: Speech to Text."Â  Find Health, Education, Science & Technology Articles, Reviews, How-To and Tech Tips At Bright Hub - Apply To Be A Writer Today!. BrightHUb, 13 Sept. 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2011.

CAT5e cable to a connector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CAT5e cable to a connector - Essay Example The four wire pairs in the cable are color coded with 4 colors; namely, green, blue, orange and brown. Four wires in the cable have solid coloration, while the other four are a combination of these colors, painted in stripes onto a white background. These four pairs are twisted together and housed in a single jacket. The specific ordering of the colors differs, in accordance with the scheme employed. There are two color code standards; namely, the EIA/TIA 568A and EIA/TIA 568B, which are used to terminate the cable at the RJ45 ends (Nikkel). Between similar devices, such as a PC to PC connection, a crossover cable would be required. Hence in this case, one end would employ the 568B standard, whereas the other end must utilize the 568A standard. When unlike devices are required to be connected, like a PC card to a hub, a straight through cable is used. In this case, both the RJ45 connectors comply with the same color code standard, either 568A or 568B (Nikkel). First, the covering sheath of the cat 5 cable at the end is to be removed. Then, the pairs are to be untwisted and the colored wires are to be arranged, as per the required 568A or 568B standard. This is shown in the image appended below: After this the individual wires are to be trimmed and inserted into the RJ45 connector, ensuring that all the wires are properly placed inside the connector. Thereafter, a crimping tool has to be employed, in order to fasten the cable to the connector. The length of the wire is to be minimized to the extent possible, as longer wires tend to decrease the transfer speeds. A similar procedure is to be followed at the other end of the cable, in order to obtain an Ethernet cable. The CAT 5e Ethernet cable offers a fast and reliable way of transferring information between network cables. However without the use of an amplification device they can only be used up to a length of

Contextualised analysis of Associated British Foods PLC Dissertation

Contextualised analysis of Associated British Foods PLC - Dissertation Example For the purpose of operational capability of the company, its corporate strategy has been analyzed in addition to the competitive environment and other risks to which it is being exposed. The paper presents the financial evaluation of the company and for this particular purpose, the most effective tool of ratio analysis has been utilized. The financial ratios are usually divided into various sub categories such as profitability, gearing and liquidity, each put emphasis on a different area of the financial outlook of the organization. These analyses form an integral part of the financial statement analysis, especially from the investor’s point of view, which are always looking for avenues to invest in countries having strengthened and stabilized financial ratios and representing an upward trend. In addition to the financial evaluation, for the purpose of risk assessment, several risks has been identified and assessed such as firm related risks, currency risks, capital structure risks and market risks. The ABF plc actively follows the corporate governance directives issued by the FRC for the corporation registered in the UK. Being a premium company listed on the stock exchange, the company is required to follow the directives of the corporate governance requirements. The company has stated in its latest financial report that it has complied with all of the provisions and directives of the corporate governance as per the regulations. The company has always remained sincere to its corporate social responsibility and has always strived for it. Being a multinational, the policies of corporate social responsibility extends to all of the countries in which the company has its operations. 1 Overview of the Company Associated British Foods is not a new name in the food and ingredients industry and is considered analogous to quality and premium branding. The company is a diversified conglomerate having five major strategic segments which are sugar, agriculture, ret ail, grocery and ingredients. The company is a multinational and has been working to further broaden its horizon. As per the latest financial statements of the company for the annual year 2012, the company is operating in more than 47 countries worldwide having employed more than 106,000 employees. The vision and mission statement of the company is to achieve strong leadership in the course of business which is sustainable and long lasting. The company always strives to provide quality products to the individuals and other consumers and to become a necessary brand in the people’s day to day active life. The financial year 2012 proved to be a vital year for the company as it continued to progress and thrive in the midst of all the financial difficulties and was able to divert various operating hurdles as well. One of the indicators of the robust financial performance of the company was the fact that its revenue increased by an impressive 11% during the current financial year t o ?12.3 billion which caused the adjusting operating profit to increase by 17% as compared to the previous

Mobile Location Techniques

Mobile Location Techniques INTRODUCTION: With the rapid increase in number of mobile users, a massive number of calls originate from mobile subscribers, all over the world, everyday. With the increasing number of mobile users and originating calls, there is also an increase in emergency calls that originate from mobile stations. In many emergency cases the position is unknown to the caller, or he cannot explain properly. Thus there is a strong need to locate any mobile user in emergency situation. Hence the scope of mobile positioning is vital. Due to importance of mobile positioning, the need to locate any mobile user in emergency was also called by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and European Countries. For instance, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) made a proposal to include location in the 911 emergency service number, which resulted in the E911 ruling [2]. Currently, all the legacy handsets used in public cellular networks in the USA must provide the location of the customer whenever this number is dialled. The European Commission (EC) adopted a similar regulation to include location in emergency services on 112 [2]. The FCC in USA took the first step in this direction. Initially by 2001, the mobile operators are required to provide the accurate location of an emergency caller. The current requirement of FCC is to locate 67% of emergency callers must be located within 100 meters and 95% of the callers must be located with an error of no more than 300 meters. [3] Applications: Mobile location can be used for a number of services by mobile operators. Some of them are discussed here: An important application of mobile location is to provide emergency services. By knowing the location of a mobile user, emergency vehicle can be directed to that location. Hence there is an increase in public safety and services. Another interest in exploiting the mobile location is to apply location sensitive billing. By knowing the location of mobile subscribers an operator can offer competitive tariff e.g. users can be offered more calls from their mobile to home or office. Asset tracking and fleet management is another application of mobile location. Using the location of mobile travellers can be informed about location. Mobile location can be used to effectively manage fleet and traffic conditions. There are two main categories for mobile positioning,Handset Based positioning and Network based positioning. Handset Based techniques needs special type of handset hardware or the installation of specialized network software in existing handsets e.g. GPS and A-GPS. GPS receiver determines its own position by sending and receiving signals from at least four satellites. The time to reach satellite signal to GPS receiver is used as a parameter. The accuracy of GPS based systems is very high. And the coverage of satellite is very good in outdoor environment. However, drawback is inability of GPS to operate in indoor and heavily populated urban environment. GPS lacks positioning where signals of the satellite cannot be fully covered. Another problem is related to existing handsets in market. A large number of existing handsets lack the built in GPS receivers. Thus using this method a huge number of people can not get benefit or can not be located in case of emergency. Also Embedding a GP S receiver into mobile devices leads to increased cost, size, and battery consumption [1]. Thus hundreds of millions of handsets in market need to be replaced or modified. In contrast, Network Based Techniques determine the position of a mobile user by measuring its signal parameters when received at the network Base Station (BS). Here BS receives signal from Mobile Station (MS) and sends them to a central site where location estimation algorithms are used to estimate location. In this method there is no need to change or replace existing handsets. It would require change in a few thousands of network nodes (Base Stations) than to change hundred of thousands of mobile stations. Hence, it can be implemented easily, less costly using existing technology. And still can provide a very good estimate of position of a mobile user. The future technologies also support network based positioning. Infact many positioning techniques can not be implemented using existing GSM technology. Using advanced technologies their efficiency will greatly increase. The Network based positioning is also feasible for network operators as it would help them to implement location sensitive billing and location related services. Thus based on a certain location the operator can implement a specific price plan e.g. less price calls to home or office number. It will also help them to generate more revenue. Another advantage of network based techniques is the security of the subscribers. Using an algorithm at network side also ensures that the position of subscriber is known only to emergency service or mobile operator. Thus it also increases the safety and security of the subscribers. The network based techniques have several advantages like low cost, ease of implementation, implementation using existing technologies and methods, beneficial for a large number of people. However, the main issue with this technique is its accuracy. Despite a number of efforts to reduce error and increase accuracy there is still no unbiased estimation method present. All of the methods produce good results under certain conditions or circumstances. Thus there is no general prediction for result using an algorithm. The main problems in incorrect positioning are multipath propagation, fading and low SNR. The efforts are continuously being made to minimize these and hence increase accuracy and thus performance. The project will emphasize on comparing various existing network based location techniques. Some of the common techniques will be studied in detail. Base on these existing methods, a number of positioning algorithms are also studied in detail to implement major positioning techniques. The algorithms will then be implemented using MATLAB. The results of algorithms will be compared to actual position of mobile station so as to measure the performance of each of them. Final thing is to develop an online benchmarking tool to compare location evaluation estimates using different techniques. The tool should be able to run user uploaded measurements in to its own algorithms. The results will then be compared to user submitted results to perform a benchmark. Existing Literature Review A number of mobile location techniques are common nowadays. These techniques can be divided into three main types: Mobile Based Techniques Network Based Techniques Indirect Techniques These techniques are briefly explained below: Mobile Based Techniques: In this method, a number of geographically separated transmitters are used by the mobile station to exploit its own position. It is also known as Self Positioning. Thus mobile station (MS) locates itself by using signals from a number of transmitters or base stations (BS). Example of mobile based positioning is GPS and A-GPS. In GPS based positioning GPS receiver uses signals from geographically distributed satellites to exploit its own position. Network Based Techniques: This method uses a number of transmitters in a network to locate position of an unknown receiver. It uses resources of the network only. The signals from the MS are used by a number of BS to locate the MS. This technique can be implemented using different type of parameters e.g. Cell Global Identity (CGI), Cell Global Identity with Timing Advance (CGI-TA), Enhanced Cell Global Identity (E-CGI), Time of Arrival (TOA), Angle of Arrival (AOA), Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA). Indirect Techniques: In this technique mobile or network can be assisted to locate a mobile station. Thus base station can send positioning data to mobile station to locate itself. Similarly measurements can be uploaded from MS to BS to locate mobile station. It involves measurements sent from MS to BS for positioning at BS or vice versa. There are a number of network based mobile positioning techniques in use today. In such techniques a number of involved base stations (BS) use signal from mobile station (MS) to locate the position of MS. The common methods are Signal Strength, Time of Arrival, Time Difference of Arrival, Angle of Arrival, or hybrid techniques. Each of the existing method has its own advantages and disadvantages. A major problem with all methods is the accuracy. It depends on cell size, cell environment, number of cells, multipath propagations and distance between MS and serving base station. Some other common parameters for performance measurement include applicability, robustness, etc. The existing methods have been described in detail below: Cell Global Identity: The CGI method to locate a mobile user is most easy and straight forward. In this method, the position of mobile user is estimated by using the cell identity of serving base station. Thus the mobile can be located anywhere in a call coverage area. It is very simple to implement. However, the positioning error may range from a few meters to a few kilometres. The accuracy will be dependent on the size of serving base station. Another problem with this method is that mobile station is not always connected to nearest base station. In this case the location of mobile cannot be even estimated. Enhanced-CGI: To overcome errors in basic CGI technique another method is used. The basic idea was to split the coverage area of a base station into two or more areas, mostly three 120 degree areas. Each area within a base station can then be issued with a separate identity. Hence in this way the position of mobile can be narrow down to a small area. Although this method is easy to implement yet error is large enough from practical point of view. CGI with Timing Advance: The CGI technique can also be improved by using the timing advance feature of GSM. Timing advance is a value that corresponds to the time it takes for a signal to reach from MS to BS. In GSM timing advance is a feature used by the base station to synchronise with mobile station. On step timing advance is equal to a change in 1100 m of round-trip time (the time signal takes to reach from base station to mobile and then back to base station). The timing advance is assigned by base station for each mobile station. Using the timing advance feature a mobile user can be located within 550 meters approximately. Time of Arrival: Although CGI method provides a good estimation of mobile position, the error is still large enough from emergency view point. Another method to locate mobile is using the arrival time of signals at base stations involved. The distance of mobile can be estimated by using information about time of arrival i.e. D = t / c Where t is the time of arrival of signal at base station and c is the speed of light. The distance will be the estimated mobile position. However the mobile can be located anywhere on circular path centred at base station and radius equal to estimated distance D. The exact position of mobile can be estimated by using same type of measurements from two other neighbouring base stations. Ideally the positioning circles from all the three base stations must intersect at a point, which will be the position of mobile. However, practically, the circles dont intersect at a single point rather they make a small area in which the mobile is potentially located. This method is really better than CGI because it gives more accurate results. The time of arrival method requires accurate synchronization or reference between mobile and base station to correctly measure the arrival time. The results, however, depends on environment of cell clutter, atmospheric conditions, and multipath propagation. In worst atmospheric conditions the results may vary severely. Angle of Arrival: In this method the position of the mobile is located by using the direction of signal arriving from mobile station to the serving and, at least one other base station. The direction or angle of arrival is measured at base station by using arrays of antennas. Angle measurement at one base station will give the position of mobile to be located at a straight line at a certain angle with base station. Measurement from another involved base station will produce another positioning line. Ideally the mobile must be located at the intersection of two lines from involved base stations. In practice, however, they may not intersect at all at a single point. The angle of arrival is good because it can be implemented using a small number of base stations. Thus it is best when the number of base stations visible to mobile is very low. The angle of arrival method is very sensitive to measurement errors of angle. So a very small error in angle measurement results in a much larger error in position o f mobile. Time Difference of Arrival: The time of arrival method requires a strict synchronisation or reference between mobile and base station. To overcome this problem, the difference of arrival time at a pair of base station is used for measurements. A pair of base stations is used to record one time difference measurement. The result will be a circle on which mobile can be anywhere. Ideally the three circles will intersect at one point. This point will be the position of mobile. In actual practice the method will give a small area in which mobile must be located. The difference of arrival time eliminates the need of synchronisation as required by time of arrival. This method can be used as to run entirely on network side or to run with mobile assistance. The performance of time difference method is greatly improved than time of arrival. The main advantage of this method is elimination of timing requirement. However, on the other hand, the number of involved base station must be at least four including primary base st ation. Thus only then three sets of measurements can be obtained. The time difference of arrival method is more frequently used due to ease of implementation. Data correlation method: The Database Correlation Method makes use of the signal information seen by mobile station. The signal information from all of the coverage area seen by mobile station is stored in a database at network side. The signal information may include signal strength, signal timing, signal delay etc. When position of the mobile is required, the stored data in database is used by a positioning server to do so. The signal measurements sent to the database depends on the environment. The resolution of such measurements must be set so as to achieve certain accuracy. In GSM a sub-band resolution is used by the Base Station Controller (BSC) to facilitate the handover process. Pilot Correlation Method: Algorithms Search: There are a number of positioning algorithms in present literature. These algorithms make use of the measurements done by the mobile station. The measurements required for each algorithm may vary. However, some common measurements may include Cell ID, LAC, Signal Strength, Timing Advance, Time of Arrival, and Direction (Angle) of Arrival. Also these measurements may be carried out only on network side i.e., by primary base station or they can be performed with assistance of mobile station. The algorithms for all of the major positioning methods are studied in detail. Although there is a large number of algorithms in literature yet each of them has own advantages and disadvantages. Each algorithm is based on some assumptions and limitations. For this reason we can not say which one is best. But the one which gives acceptable accuracy is thought to be the good one. Cell Global Identity (CGI): The Cell ID is the very basic method to locate mobile station. It is used to make a rough estimate of mobile position. With this method the mobile can be located anywhere within a cell. Thus the accuracy is very poor. The mobile station measures periodically the id of serving base station and up to 6 neighbouring base station. Thus no special algorithm is needed to locate Cell ID. By looking at mobile measurements the Cell ID can be located. Enhanced Cell ID: Due to very poor accuracy of basic Cell ID, a number of enhancements have been made to it. Thus measurements like signal strength, Timing Advance can be used in conjunction with Cell ID to improve accuracy. Two algorithms which show good results are Enhancement to CGI using Signal Strength and Positioning using Timing Advance. In the first algorithm the signal strength is taken as a parameter. The power received by mobile station from primary base station and up to six neighbouring cells is feedback to primary base station. The primary base station thus knows the power transmitted by it and power received by mobile station. Then the distance calculation is possible by using the known path loss. Using Okumura-Hata Path Loss model [4] the distance between mobile and base station is calculated. The mathematical form of this model is [4]; Urban areas: LdB = A + B log10 R E Suburban areas: LdB = A + B log10 R C Open areas: LdB = A + B log10 R D A = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 fc 13.82 log10 hb B = 44.9 6.55 log10 hb C = 2 (log10 (fc / 28))2 + 5.4 D = 4.78 ( log10 fc )2 + 18.33 log10 fc + 40.94 E = 3.2 ( log10 ( 11.7554 hm ))2 4.97 for large cities, fc = 300MHz E = 8.29 ( log10 ( 1.54 hm ))2 1.1 for large cities, fc E = ( 1.1 log10 fc 0.7 ) hm ( 1.56 log10 fc 0.8 ) for medium to small cities Definition of parameters: hm mobile station antenna height above local terrain height [m] dm distance between the mobile and the building h0 typically height of a building above local terrain height [m] lhbbase station antenna height above local terrain height [m] rgreat circle distance between base station and mobile [m] R=r x 10-3 great circle distance between base station and mobile [km] f carrier frequency [Hz] fc=f x 10-6 carrier frequency [MHz] ? free space wavelength [m] This model is fairly simple so it is used for a large number of situations. The distance calculation is easy from this model using known path loss in pre-defined environment. The mobile will be located anywhere on the circle of estimated distance with centre at base station. A minimum of three base stations are used for such measurements. Ideally the three circles will intersect at a single point. This point will be the position of mobile station. The triangulation technique is used to find the intersection coordinates of circles. Time of Arrival: Although CGI provides the position of mobile station yet the accuracy is not sufficient for many purposes. To improve accuracy the time of arrival method is used. It gives good results than CGI in most of the situations. A number of algorithms describing time of arrival method are in literature. Each of them has some advantages and some short comings. Also each algorithm works best under some specific conditions e.g. in line of sight (LOS) or non-line of sight (NLOS) conditions. A good algorithm which gives acceptable results in many situations is A Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning: Algorithms and Optimality. This algorithm uses a least square approach to estimate position of mobile station. The distance between mobile station and base station is estimated by using the fact that signals travel in free space at a speed equal to speed of light. Thus mathematically, Di =Ti / c i = 1, 2 N Where D is the estimated distance, T is the TOA measurement, i denote the number of base station and c is the speed of light. The mobile station will be located anywhere on the circle with radius D centered at base station i. Same TOA measurements are performed by at least three base stations. The position of mobile will be the intersection of three circles. Ideally this will be a single point. But in practice, due to multipath propagation and fading, it will give a small area. The mobile station will be located in this area. To reduce positioning error the algorithm uses a least square error approach. Thus the distance between every point in that area and each mobile station is calculated. The point where the sum of squares of distances is minimized will be the estimated position of mobile station. To get TOA measurements, base station and mobile station must be synchronized properly or there must be a reference point. Thus a strict timing requirement is necessary. Angle of Arrival: In LOS conditions this method is the best to use. A number of algorithms describing this method are in literature. All of these algorithms require a dominant LOS path to correctly perform angle of arrival measurements at base station. Thus this method is best in open areas and suburban areas. In dense urban environment this technique produces severe errors due to NLOS and multipath propagation. A number of algorithms are studied in detail. A good algorithm is A Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning: Algorithms and Optimality. It produces results with acceptable accuracy. According to this algorithm, to perform angle of arrival measurements, base station must be provided with multiple antenna arrays. A minimum of two base stations will be required to perform such measurements. The signal from mobile station will reach base station at a certain angle with horizontal axis. This angle can be measured by base station using antenna arrays. Mathematically, it is given by tan (fi) =(y yi / x xi) , i = 1, 2, . . . , M. The angle of arrival measurement from one base station will result in a straight line. This line is also called Line of Bearing (LOB). It will be at a certain angle between horizontal axis and base station. The mobile will be located any where on the LOB. A similar measurement will be done using another involved base station. It will result in producing another angle of arrival or LOB. The point where the two line of bearing intersects will be the position of mobile station. Ideally two lines will intersect at a unique point. However, practically they may not intersect at a point. In this situation the angle of arrival method need further measurements from other involved base station. This method produces very accurate results in LOS situation. However, the results depend critically on the measured angle. Thus a very small error in angle measurement may lead to positioning error of hundreds of meters. Another disadvantage is the cost of this method. It requires antenna arrays at each base station to measure AOA. Hence cost of implementation increases. Time Difference of Arrival: The time difference of arrival uses the difference in arrival times of signals at a pair of base stations. The time difference of arrival measurements are done with reference to primary base station. A good algorithm in literature is the Performance Comparison of TOA and TDOA Based Location Estimation Algorithms in LOS Environment. It explains the working of different types of TDOA approach. It also compares the performance of each of the type. However it uses a LOS approach. In open areas LOS assumption is valid but in heavily populated urban areas this assumption is invalid. Another good algorithm which explains the TDOA measurements is is A Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning: Algorithms and Optimality . In this algorithm, the primary (Serving) base station is the reference base station. The time of arrival measurements are performed using the reference base station. Thus the estimated distance between mobile station and reference base station is d1 and that of mobile station and a neighbouring base station is di. Thus the TDOA measurements are given by, d1 = t1 / c di = ti / c, i = 2,3 .. N Where d1 is the distance between mobile station and reference (primary) base station and di are the distances between mobile station and other three neighbouring base stations. The TDOA measurement between reference and second base station is given by TDOA= d1-di i = 2,3, .N This will be the error free TDOA measurement at a pair of base stations. The measurement including error is given by; TDOA= (d1 di) + error The error is modelled as a Gaussian distributed random variable with zero-mean. Such measurements are taken from at least three pairs of base stations. The triangulation technique is then employed to get the position of mobile station. The TDOA method is superior to time of arrival (TOA) in sense that it eliminates the need for timing reference. Thus it is easy to implement. Due to no timing requirement TDOA method is more frequently used than TOA method. Database correlation method: Despite of a number of algorithm which perform fairly well in urban areas there is still a need to further improve it. Due to severe multipath and fading effects LOS assumption is not valid in urban areas. The Database Correlation Method is a good method to counter effect multi path and fading. It can be implemented by utilizing the measurements performed in existing GSM systems. It can be implemented by making Signal Strength as a parameter. A ggod algorithm to implement Database Correlation Method is Database Correlation Method for GSM Location by Heikki Laitinen, Jaakko Lahteenmaki, Tero Nordstrom'. In this algorithm the DCM is implemented by using signal strength measurements performed by handset. The algorithm explains the way database correlation method can be implemented in GSM. The measurements performed in the coverage area are performed by mobile station and are stored in database. Thus the database will consists pre-measured samples of signal measurements in the coverage l ocation. When the need to locate mobile station arises, the primary base station asks mobile station to perform signal strength measurements and feedback to it. The BS sends these measurements to location server. The location server then calculates the difference between stored fingerprint and actual measurement. The point where the difference between fingerprint and actual measurement is minimum will be the estimated position of mobile station. The estimated position will also contain some error in it due to fading, NLOS path and multipath propagation. However this error will be drastically less than the error in other techniques applied under same conditions. The database correlation method has the advantage that it can be implemented in any type of system like GSM, CDMA,UMTS,etc. References: Network-Based Wireless Location IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE JULY 2005 A New Time-Based Algorithm for Positioning Mobile Terminals in Wireless NetworksIsrael Martin-Escalona and Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo, EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing Mobile Positioning Using Wireless NetworksIEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE JULY 2005 Path loss models S-72.333 Physical layer methods in wireless communication systems Sylvain Ranvier / Radio Laboratory / TKK 23 November 2004 Performance Comparison of TOA and TDOA Based Location Estimation Algorithms in LOS Environment Guowei Shen, Rudolf Zetik, and Reiner S. Thoma A Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning: Algorithms and Optimality K.W. Cheung,1 H. C. So,1 W.-K.Ma,2 and Y. T. Chan3 Database Correlation Method for GSM Location Heikki Laitinen, Jaakko Lahteenmaki, Tero Nordstrom

MLB Salary Cap Is Needed Essay -- essays research papers

Anyone who has been involved in an organized sport, whether it is backyard football or a high school sports team, knows that these sports all have organizations that are responsible for setting rules, determining conditions of play, and penalizing individuals who infringe the rules. Some of the organizations like the National Football league and the MLB are familiar to most people, the rules they follow are not generally understood by anyone who is not closely associated with the sport. Most fans and sport critics assume that what is happening inside these organizations are of little concern to them. However, this is not the case. In the MLB, the New York Yankees spend an excessive amount of money every year to obtain big name players. A luxury tax was put into effect for teams that go over the spending limit. However, the Yankees are the only team that pays the tax because they are the only team that exceeds the spending limit. The players, coaches, fans, and I have argued that a s alary cap would be the best possible way to allow teams in the Major Leagues an equal opportunity getting to the World Series. For the last 30 years, the New York Yankees have been a dominant force in Major League Baseball. Other teams do not make as much money as the New York Yankees therefore they have less capital to spend on big name players. In 1994, the Major Leagues put the luxury tax into place. The idea was to tax a club’s payroll if the total payroll exceeded a certain limit. However, the Yankees seem to exceed this limit every year. The Yankees are a notable team not only for their impressive history on the field, but also for their financial situation. The Yankees owner spends more on player salaries than any other franchise in baseball. â€Å"As of 2004, the team payroll is more than $182 million, which is $51 million more than the second-highest team, the Boston Red Sox, and more than the six lowest-payroll teams combined† (Wikipedia Encyclopedia†). The millions of people who are associated with baseball in this country, many of whom had only a vague idea of what was happeni ng, are now asking themselves whether or not the game is being played fairly. Even though teams like the New York Yankees are able to assemble top-notch teams by ignoring the spending limit, a salary cap is necessary to maintain the equal competitive nature of major leag... ...uld be acceptable would be to issue a salary cap like every other major sport in America. The NFL and NBA were forced to have a salary cap and we haven't seen a dominant team like the Yankees since the Celtics in the 50's and 60's. Every year there is usually a different "dominant" team and the Super Bowl and NBA Championship is always up for grabs. Attendance is slowly declining in the MLB because people do not want to support their home teams when in reality, they will lose to the usual dominant high paid teams. This is not fair to any sports fan and the only acceptable solution to keep attendance high and ratings up is to issue a salary cap. Selig, Bud. â€Å"Baseball Almanac Biography.† January 12, 2001. [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/budseligs_biography.shtml] Staudohar, Paul D. â€Å"Salary Cap in Professional Sports† June 21, 1998 [http://www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/archive/spring1998art1.pdf] George Bob. â€Å"Money Battle† December 1, 2000 â€Å"Wikipedia Encyclopedia.† Accesses November 27, 2004 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page] Steinbrenner, George. â€Å"Steinbrenner Speaks To the Press† September 21, 2002 [www.baseballjunkies.com/articles/2001/april/seasontalk.html]

Philip IIs relationship with the Papacy Essay

Philip was called the ‘most Catholic King’, however his relationship with the Papacy was never as good as his title may imply. Philip acknowledged that the Pope was God’s representative on earth, but he still kept control of the church in Spain. He could reject Papal Bulls and took a percentage of the church’s revenue. When Jesuits emerged to try and reconvert people Philip initially welcomed them but soon became annoyed as they swore allegiance to the Pope. He even arrested and imprisoned a Jesuit leader until the Pope demanded his release. The Pope, being an Italian prince, always felt threatened as he was surrounded by Philip’s possessions in Italy. The Pope even made an alliance with Philip’s greatest enemy, France, to try and drive Philip out of Italy. Philip acted first when he heard the plans and sent the Duke of Alva who led and army and surrounded Rome. Although Philip did no ask for any conditions for withdrawal, the relations with the Pope deteriorated further. Philip’s father Charles had already sacked Rome before in 1527, and these events led to the Pope increasingly fearing Philip. This fear of Spanish dominance led to the pope rejecting Philip’s claim to become protector of French Catholics after the death of Henry III, making matters difficult for Philip and worsening relations. The Pope and Philip did cooperate on occasions, such as when the Holy League was formed against the Turks. Philip, although reluctant, obliged to join the League and they achieved a great military victory at Lepanto, inflicting the Turks’ worst naval defeat. However the celebrations did not last as to the pope’s annoyance, Philip made peace with the Muslim Turks. Overall Philip’s relations with the Papacy were never very good, despite there being numerous different popes during Philip’s reign. However with their common faith the two were never in serious direct conflict, as they together faced the common enemy of Protestantism. ii) Philip’s reign saw two serious internal rebellions within Spain. These were the revolt of the Moriscos and Aragon, each partly caused by Philip’s actions but also by other factors. Moriscos were descended from the Moors who had been driven out of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Moors were Muslims and Moriscos were converts who had converted to Christianity. However the people of Spain were still suspicious of them, and the vast majority of Inquisition cases were against Moriscos. Many Moriscos did secretly still practise their own religion and more and more laws were creating suppressing Moorish culture such as banning Moorish literature. The Moriscos were often seen as traitors with links to Turkey and Barbary Corsairs who raided Spanish coastlines. This meant they never fitted into Spanish society and felt alienated. The Moriscos were also experience economic difficulty. Their main trade, silk, was heavily taxed and also facing competition from other sources. They were also prohibited from owning slaves and after government investigation large areas of Morisco land were confiscated. This led to Moriscos feeling even more oppressed and in financial difficulty. These increasing tensions let to the Inquisitor General Espinosa being given control of the Moriscos in 1567 and by the end of 1568 the Moriscos were in revolt. Although Philip’s troops recaptured over 180 villages, trouble increased with news that Espinosa intended to deport all Moriscos from Granada. Philip then appointed his half brother Don John as commander of the army. This worsened matters as Don John’s undisciplined troops raped and murdered victims, causing the revolt to flare into civil war with 30,000 rebels. Some rebels dealt cruelly with Christians and Don John responded with massacres of some town. Philip finally realised that he could not win by force and cancelled the deportation orders. Instead he ordered Moriscos to be dispersed throughout Spain and free pardons were offered to those who surrendered. This was his first wise strategy and eventually brought the revolt to an end. However if the Moriscos Revolt can be seen as less of Philip’s personal fault and more because of tension building through the years, the Aragon was much more to do with Philip’s personal actions. Philip resided in Castile and did not visit other parts of his empire, which was resented by other provinces as they felt neglected and suspected Philip of trying to Castilise the whole of Spain. Philip had largely left Aragon alone, but in 1590 there was the announcement of government troops arriving to help secure the border with France in order to keep out Huguenots. The Aragon nobles feared for their freedom and began a small revolt. This was not serious but the situation changed when Antonio Perez fled to Aragon at his fall from power. He insisted on being trialled in Aragon as it was his native province. Whilst in Aragon Perez spread royal secrets including Philip’s involvement in the murder of Escobedo. Philip ordered his arrest to be tried in an Inquisition court but the Aragonese nobles saw this as breach of their rights and protests turned into uncontrollable riots. Philip quickly responded by sending troops to the Aragon border and demanded the handover of Perez. More riots broke out and Perez managed to escape. However the call for the Aragonese people to declare war on Philip received little support and Philip’s troops were able to crush the revolt. In both cases, Philip was partly responsible for the revolts. The Moriscos revolt was largely due to the build up of tension through the years, but Philip’s decision to appoint Espinosa did not help matters and his reliance on Don John worsened the rebellion. His main faults lay with the people he appointed and this contributed to triggering the revolt. The Aragon revolt was more personally against Philip as he never visited but still attempted to assume to control over the area. There had been resentment of Castile amongst the Aragonese nobles and Philip’s insistence in the capture of Perez sparked off the revolt, so in this case Philip was largely responsible for the revolt.

The 2001 MTV VMAs-An Overview essays

The 2001 MTV VMAs-An Overview essays 2001 has been a great year for the music and entertainment channel, MTV. New seasons of The Real Word and Road Rules, various concerts and specials, and the Movie Awards have all been big highlights of this year so far. The channel also celebrated its 20th Anniversary this past August. However, arguably, the biggest event of them all is the Video Music Awards. Known for its tendency to push the envelope when it comes to what can and cant be shown on cable television, the VMAs are more about the show than the awards. This year was no exception. Live from the Metropolitan Opera House, the show opened with host Jamie Foxx performing a very fitting opera rendition of several of this past years most popular songs. Then, he quickly shifted gears into a monologue, insulting several celebrities that were present at the awards, contrary to earlier reports that he wouldnt do so. Thankfully, Will Ferrell of Saturday Night Live fame ran onto the stage in the middle of Foxxs act, climbing up a prop on stage while shouting, Im raging! This was a homage to a similar act performed by the bassist of the band Rage Against the Machine from last years VMAs, and forced MTV to cut to a commercial break. Thus began a constant stream of performances and awards. An interesting theme to the VMAs this year was the jungle. Before the nominees for each award were named, small nature documentary clips were shown, however, in true MTV fashion, most of them were rather provocative. Britney Spears lip-synching performance also featured a zoo-full of caged animals behind her, not to mention a snake around her neck. Another moment of the VMAs that cannot be overlooked is the tribute to Aaliyah. Several artists including Janet Jackson and Missy Elliot said a few words. Aaliyahs brother also made a rather moving speech. The moment wouldve been perfect, had Janet Jackson not read t ...

The reason why I selected these three compounds Essays

The reason why I selected these three compounds Essays The reason why I selected these three compounds Essay The reason why I selected these three compounds Essay The reason why I selected these three compounds which are azo dyes, aspirin and soap is because: In the aspect of chemistry, they all have different functional groups and molecular shapes associated with different functions. They are all demanded in the modern world commercially. They are easy and an affordable way of making in the college lab with minor hazards. The aims of this unit is to: A clear awareness of a variety of different functional groups and their reactions. A brief understanding of the reaction mechanism involved in each reaction as well as the shape importance of the molecule relating to its use. ; An in depth insight of the organic synthesis as well as the gradual steps involved in making the product, including the issue of equilibrium reactions and predicted yield. ; Familiarize myself with the different apparatus as well as materials used in the organic synthesis, and their limitations with regardless of yield. ; Show good comprehensive knowledge of the commercial importance of organic compounds and the economic imperatives involved in producing such compounds. AZO DYES 1) Introduction There are different types of dyes. A dye is used to impart color to materials of which it becomes the integral part. They give bright, high intensity colors that can even supply a complete rainbow of colors. Azo dyes are highly important commercially as they are used in the textile industry as acid dyes for wool and their affinity for cotton is increased by the number of auxochromes or azo groups. Auxochromes are groups in a dye molecule that influences the color due to the chromophore. They are groups, such as -OH and -NH2, containing lone pairs of electrons that can be delocalized along with the delocalized electron An azo group is a -N=N- group that is a chromophore (A chemical group capable of selective light absorption resulting in the coloration of certain organic compounds.) Azo dyes are also used as pigments and in color photography. In the UK, companies like James Robinsons Limited make about thirty thousand tones of azo dyes each year. 2) Commercial And Laboratory Synthesis The synthesis of azo dyes involves the reaction of diazotation and coupling and at the end of the reaction, separation of the azo dye from the mixture that is going to be produced. 1) Diazotisation This is the reaction in which produces diazonium salt as well as a -N diazonium ion. This is very unstable when it exceeds temperatures above 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C. Otherwise the -N decomposes into nitrogen gas. 2) Coupling This is the electrophilic substitution on the phenol which produces an energetically stable azo dye. The azo group is -N=N- First step: Diazotisation reaction HNO + HCL + 2H O Phenylamine + nitrous acid + hydrochloric acid phenyldiazonium chloride + water (Diazonium salt) The reaction takes place under 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C to prevent the NN, the N2 diazonium ion decomposing into N2 gas. This suggests that the delocalization of the diazonium ion bond electrons over the benzene ring is only able to stabilize the diazonium salt at cold temperatures. At higher temperatures above 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, there is too much so therefore the diazonium ion gives way to nitrogen gas. Below shows the reaction mechanism of for the formation of diazonium salt. Now that there is a N2+ diazonium ion, there is now a suitable electrophile to attack a phenol ring. Second Step: Coupling This is where phenol attacks benzene at the 4th position of the ring. The equation for this Is: Phenyldiazonium ion + phenol 4-hydroxyphenylazobenzene + hydrogen ion Azo dyes are very stabilized which is a result of broad delocalization of the electrons through the -N=N azo group (nitrogen double bond). Delocalisation is simply increased stability 3) Relationship Structure/ Function Of Azo dyes The structure of an azo dye is very closely linked to its function as a dye, in terms of color and fastness. Auxochromes can modify the color of a chromophore. The azo functional group itself is also important as this is what part of the light the spectrum absorbs. In the aspect of the fastness, azo dyes are very stable as a result of their chemical structure and they can also be made more color fast by alkylation of phenolic groups ASPIRIN 1) Introduction Aspirin is one of the commonly used pain relief tablets on the world. It is an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Aspirin inhibits the enzyme that converts fatty acids in cell membranes into prostaglandin precursors known as endoperoxides. These endoperoxides can be converted into various prostaglandins, including those that produce pain, fever, and inflammation. Generally, one or two 5-grain doses of aspirin can block the prostaglandin formation. The main side effect of aspirin is the tendency of irritation of the stomach lining which causes small amounts of blood loss. In order to prevent this, aspirin is thus buffered and combined with other medicines to produce some desired effect of reducing blood loss. 2) Commercial Synthesis The starting raw materials of the commercial aspirin reaction are: Phenol C6 H3 OH ( l ) Sodium Hydroxide NaOH (aq) Carbon dioxide CO2 ( g ) Acetic Anhydride CH3COOCOCH3 ( l ) Acid H+ (aq) Below are four different stages in which aspirin is made: The next step of this reaction is classified as an esterification reaction. Esterification is simply where an alcohol (the -OH group from salicylic acid) reacts with an acid (acetic anhydride) to form an ester acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The rates of the esterification reaction are increased by the addition of small quantities of mineral acids such as phosphoric acid (a catalyst) and some heat. http://aspirin-foundation.com/reaction.htm C9H8O4 is the molecular formula for aspirin and this tells you how many atoms are in each molecule of acetylsalicylic acid. So there are 9 C (carbon) atoms, 8 H (hydrogen) atoms, and 4O (oxygen) atoms. Acetylsalicylic acid has two functional groups, the carboxylic acid group COOH and the MeCOOR ester group-(R is used as an abbreviation for an unspecified aliphatic or aromatic chain). The Reaction Mechanism The following diagram shows the reaction mechanism of the aspirin reaction. Note: The sign means it is an equilibrium reaction (a state of balance between two opposing elements). http://tooldoc.wncc.neveda.edu/aspirin.htm There are H+ ions because they have been catalyzed by a mineral acid The H+ (proton) from the acid attacks the carboxyl oxygen in the C=O. This therefore pushes two of the oxygen electrons in one of the bonds down that is the electrons are delocalized and spread out between the two oxygen atoms. In proximity of these electrons, the O-H bond with the oxygen in the alcohol breaks and this then rearranges the electrons to form a temporary bond between the two reactants (oxygen and alcohol). The alcoholic oxygen atom has now got a temporary positive charge as it now has three bonds to it in the intermediate at step 2 of the reaction mechanism. The oxygen loses its H+ which is then attracted to one of the lone pairs on the other oxygen to make it miserable and positively charged with three bonds. The H-O-H sort of water molecule in step 3 detaches itself to form a delocalized electron system. This delocalized electron system gives the molecule adequate stability when the H leaves forming an H+ ion. This H+ ion (proton) added in the step 1 is the original acid catalyst used at the beginning of the reaction. A catalyst is basically substance that increases or decreases the rate of chemical reaction between the other chemical species without being consumed up in the process. Laboratory Synthesis The starting materials of the laboratory synthesis of aspirin are salicylic acid and acetic anhydride both of which are easily available and inexpensive. Acetic anhydride reacts with the phenolic hydroxyl group of the salicylic acid to produce acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and acetic acid. Acetylsalicylic acid has two functional groups, the carboxylic group COOH and the MeCOOR ester group-(R is used as an abbreviation for an unspecified aliphatic or aromatic chain). The rates of esterification are increased by the addition of small quantities mineral acids such as phosphoric acid (a catalyst) and some heat. Below is an equation that shows this: 3) Relationship structure/function Understanding the similarities between the two different molecules (aspirin and paracetamol) which achieve similar effects can be a profitable way of having a clear distinction of the molecules. Below are two pictures showing the structure of aspirin compared to paracetamol: Aspirin Paracetamol The structure of aspirin is related to its shape, although the presence of the functional group is also important. As seen above, all two have a six membered ring structure, which tends to avoid the polar environment of water and a comparatively small appended group of atoms and are able to bond to part of their receptor molecule. The similarity in the structure of these molecules is clearly obvious and from their similar pain killing actions so therefore, we can assume that they both can fit into similar active sites even before the details of their active sites have actually been determined. SOAP 1) Introduction The term soap is a class name for the sodium and potassium salts of stearic acid, C17H35 COOH, and other fatty acids. Soaps are and have been there for centuries, made by the addition of hot concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions to fats such as glyceryl stearate. In the world every year, about 500,000,000 soaps are produced. Generally, soaps are used for bathing and washing clothes. It works by lowering the surface tension of water, by softening grease, and by absorbing dirt into the foam. Soaps come in three different states: which are the powder, liquid and bar forms. Some liquid soaps are very thick as well as sticky so they are called gels. The first step in manufacturing all the three forms of soap is the right selection of the raw materials as well as considering that if they can react accordingly with other ingredients and are also safe for humans if accidentally consumed. Also environmental safety is considered as precaution. 2) Synthesis In laboratory synthesis, the sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids, from which soaps are prepared, consist essentially of the glycerol esters of these acids. In soap manufacture or commercial synthesis, the oil or fat is heated with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in large vats. When hydrolysis is complete, the soap is salted out which is then treated with different fragrances . Transparent soap is manufactured from decolorized fats and liquid green soaps from potassium hydroxide. Commercial synthesis Soap involves a two step synthesis: First Step: Esterification This is the process whereby an alcohol is reacted (functional group -OH) and a long chain of carboxylic acid (functional group -COOH) to make an ester (functional group -C-O-O-C-). The long chain carboxylic acid is issued from fats and oils which is called a fatty acid. For soap, the alcohol is glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) and the carboxylic acid used to make soap is oleic acid (octadeca-cis-enoic acid) as well as stearic acid (octadecanoic acid). Oleic acid is best derived from olive oil or virgin olive oil containing up to 5g of oleic acid per 100g. Stearic acid is best derived from animal fats. Glycerol is a molecule with three -OH groups, therefore three molecules of carboxylic acid can couple to glycerol to make an ester. The ester will therefore be a backbone of glycerol with three side chains in which each is a potentially different fatty acid. Below is a picture of 1 molecule of glycerol + 3 molecules of a carboxylic acid = a triglyceride: There are therefore 3 ester linkages in a triglyceride. An ester linkage links an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. Below is a picture that shows this: Note that the R group is a general organic group but what is much more interested in is the functional group that makes the type of chemical needed. Example, below is diagram of CH3COOH (ethanoic acid) and CH3CH2OH ethanol which forms an ester of CH3COOCH2 CH3 + H2O A water molecule is released for every ester linkage formed. Therefore esterification is also a hydration process. Because there is a tri-glyceride and three ester linkages in the making of soap, this shows that three water molecules will be released in the reaction. The Reaction Mechanism In this reaction, a mineral acid is needed to act as a catalyst for the reaction to lower its activation energy. This acid is combined with the carboxylic acid and helps the alcohol react with it. The acid is released unchanged at the end of the reaction. Heat is also applied in this reaction process. The reaction mechanism is called The mechanism of Fischer The following pictures below shows some of the fatty acids used to make soap: Below is a picture of triglycerides of stearic acid which have three chains of fatty acids for each glycerol molecule. Before the reaction of the carboxylic groups and fatty acids, they had a -COOH group which reacted with the -OH on the alcohol. The -COOH loosed its OH and the -OH loosed its H. OH+H=H2O. The three molecules of H2O are released to form the ester as seen in the picture above. Below is another fat and another diagram of a triglyceride that has three tails. Each tails forms a different fatty acid. http://members.aol.com/jitsm/sas/Lowry_Paper/triglyceride3.gif Second Step: Hydrolysis = Saponification A hydrolysis reaction is the decomposition of a chemical compound that is reacted with water or the -OH group which breaks up a molecule. In this reaction step, glycerol is removed from the ester whiles at the same time, each of the fatty acids are turned into a sodium or potassium salt. The ester is heated under reflux with NAOH(aq) (sodium hydroxide) (or KOH (aq) for potassium hydroxide). The equation below shows the saponification of a triglyceride of stearic acid soap= sodium stearate. In the formula of the salt above, instead of : CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COO-NA There is CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+ Third Step: Precipitation = Salting Out In this step, surplus amounts of saturated sodium chloride solution are added to the mixture obtained above to get a precipitate of soap. 3) Relationship Structure/Function: Soap is bubbly and works because it has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end. The hydrophilic end means having a strong affinity or attraction to water and the hydrophobic end means having a strong aversion for water. Soap is a surface active material as this chemical agent is capable of quick reaction activity. THE MAKING OF SOAP IN COLLEGE LABORATORY: PRACTICAL WRITE-UP Before the experiment starts, the will be some safety precautions considered such as: the wearing of splash proof chemical goggles in case hot oil splashes over and catches fire and also including lab coats worn to prevent any corrosive substances falling on clothes of students in the laboratory. Materials Needed First Step Synthesis Separation After First Step Second Step Of Synthesis Collection Of Final Product Glycerol Oleic acid Concentrated sulphuric acid in fume cupboard (corrosive) Anti-bumping granules Measuring cylinder (x2 Pear-shaped flask Reflux condenser Bunsen burner Beaker Separating funnel Conical flask Digital weighing scale Aqueous sodium hydroxide conc. 3M (caustic) Measuring cylinder Bunsen Burner Saturated aqueous sodium chloride Digital weighing scale Filter funnel Filter paper Beaker Labels First Step Of Synthesis: Esterification 1mol glycerol + 3mol oleic acid 1mol glycerol trioleate + 3 mol water The reflux apparatus was set up as seen above in the synthesis of soap (Hydrolysis) and the water was kept in mind to be kept on . Now with the measuring cylinder, 10.0cm3 of oleic acid was measured and carefully poured it into the pear-shaped flask. After this, 5.0cm3 of glycerol was accurately measured using the additional measuring cylinder available and then also added to the pear-shaped flask. In the fume cupboard, 3-5 drops of the concentrated sulphuric acid mixture was added to the pear-shaped glass. Also a pinch of anti-bumping granules was added in the pear-shaped flask to stop any bubbles from forming and splashing the reactants everywhere. After this, the pear-shaped flask was clipped securely in the reflux apparatus for it to reflux for about half an hour as well as remembering not to overheat the mixture or let it dry out. After refluxing, two separate layers of liquid were produced. Separation Following First Step The two liquid layers was separated using the separating funnel after the esterification process. The lower layer of the two liquids were collected in a beaker and discarded off whiles the remaining top dark layer which is the ester was put in a pre-weighed conical flask which was heat resistant. Below is a table of the weighed product: Weight of conical flask (g) 89.84 grams Weight of conical flask+ ester (g) 97.16 grams Weight of ester (g) 7.32 grams Second Step Of Synthesis: Hydrolysis 1mol glycerol trioleate + 3 mol aqueous sodium hydroxide 1mol glycerol +3 mol sodium oleate Caution: The Sodium hydroxide was highly concentrated, so care was taken. Now with a measuring cylinder, 20.0cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide (3M concentration) was accurately measured and put into the heat resistant conical flask which had the ester in. This started to create a precipitate. The mixture was carefully heated up by the Bunsen burner to simmer it and also, with cautions of not boiling over for about ten minutes. After the tenth minute the bunsen burner was turned off and the mixture was allowed to cool down. Collection Of the Final Product (Soap) Following hydrolysis, some amounts of the soap was already precipitated but some was still in the solution. Using the saturated sodium chloride, the soap was precipitated in the solution. This was started by using 10cm3 of saturated sodium chloride, swirling the flask gently. The precipitate (soap) was allowed to settle for a few minutes and then filtered in the filter funnel using the filter paper to separate the solid and liquid was collected in a beaker. The solid soap was left in the filter to continue filtering which took quite a bit of time. The liquid collected in the beaker was discarded and a preliminary weight measurement of the soap was taken. The mixture was allowed to dry out naturally and in a few days time, the final weight of the soap was accurately taken and recorded as the final mass of soap obtained. Calculations Mass Of soap obtained (g) 7.28 grams Molar mass (g mol-1) (Sodium Oleate) 304 gram/mol-1 Number of moles of soap obtained (mol) 7.28à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½304=0.2023 Number of moles of soap theoretically obtained from stoichiometry (mol) Mol Of ester 7.32 M. mass of oleic acid 884 =8.2805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 3 = 0.2024 mols Percentage Yield Mass Obtained 7.28 Theo. Mass 8.2805 =0.879à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100= 87.9% The % yield was a bit high may be because there wee some impurities in it. Testing The Soap In testing the soap, a little portion was broken from it after calculating the percentage yields and other calculations and then was put in a test tube. Water was then put in it to see if it would react with it and produce foam which it did.

A baseball Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A baseball - Essay Example There's a man in Mobile who keep in mind that Honus Wagner strike a triple in Pittsburgh 46 years ago that's baseball. And so is the scout reporting that a 16-year-old sandlot jug in Cheyenne is the coming Walter Johnson.Baseball is a forceful race of man next to man, reaction against reaction. A game of creep. Each skill is deliberate. Every heroic, every deteriorating is seen and applauds or booed. And then becomes a sign. In baseball, democratic system shines its clearest. The merely race that matters is the race to the bag (Hardly a Baseball Hotbed, 2003).The foremost recorded baseball competition took place a year afterward, in 1846. Cartwright's Knickerbockers misplaced to the New York Baseball Club in a pastime at the Elysian Fields, in Hoboken, New Jersey. These unpaid games turn into additional recurrent and more well-liked. In 1857, a gathering of amateur teams was called to talk about rules and other issues. Twenty five teams from the northeast sent hand over. The subseque nt year, they formed the National Association of Base Ball Players, the primary prepared baseball league. In its foremost year of action, the league supported itself by irregularly charging fans for admittance. The upcoming looked extremely bright.The early 1860s, though were a time of huge chaos in the United States. In those years of the social War, the number of baseball clubs dropped radically.

International Studies 2007 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International Studies 2007 - Essay Example As an avid practitioner of Zen, I have developed an appreciation for the influence that philosophy has on design. I find that the Eastern culture is the path into my future as I begin to incorporate green eco-design into our interior spaces. Japan is at the forefront of this discipline as they meld bamboo, rocks, and water into a harmonious living area. This offers more than just a chance encounter with nature. It makes the beholder an active participant with their surroundings and offers them the serenity of peace of mind. This seductiveness of the natural is also echoed in Japan's world-renowned gardens. My studies in Japan would give me the opportunity to view these landmarks and create new ways to bring the garden indoors. My interest in Feng Shui would naturally compliment the concept of space as a living environment. The blend of nature, Japanese gardens, and Feng Shui would offer a meditative atmosphere that would indeed be seductive. The lure of the opportunity to study in Japan does not overshadow my obligations to the program. I am infectiously dedicated to design and would bring with me the fresh ideas of New York and the West. I eagerly anticipate interacting and exchanging thoughts with the other participants.